Different Types of Essay Topics - Why Choose One Over the Other?

Different Types of Essay Topics - Why Choose One Over the Other?There are various types of essay topics. You can choose from a wide variety of choices and easily cover each topic.If you write a college essay on your student's name or about a certain event, the topic can be taken from any field. In fact, the paper is entirely dependent on the word used. Make sure to choose a topic that will contain enough information to give the student enough reasons to believe in you.This topic has a clear meaning for most readers, but has a very broad range for a basic college level student to comprehend. Hence, you must carefully choose the topic so that you can create an interesting paper.To sum up, there are several different types of essay topics depending on the meaning of the word used. The first and third topics are basically about the student, while the second and fourth topics are about the students or about the events that the student was involved in.The second and fourth essay topic will contain a little bit of content about the student. But if you are going to write on one of the topics mentioned above, it will help a lot to write from the point of view of the person who is reading the essay.The first and third different types of essay topics are also used as quizzes for students, while the second and fourth can be used as a test to pass or fail the class. It is easy to see that there are many other types of topics that can be used to write an essay. Try to find out what is being discussed in these different topics so that you can better prepare yourself.Now that you know how to find a good essay topic, let us look at one more thing. Donot just choose a topic but also prepare for the task ahead. Although a topic will dictate the size of the paper you have to write, your preparation will make your essay shine.

Paradise Now and Then - 1402 Words

Clay Meyers History of Art 3901 Professor Svede September 7, 2012 Filmmaking features can shape the viewer’s attitude toward specific elements of a film. Music, timing, camera features, setting and much more all influence the viewer’s outlook. The Battle of Algiers and Paradise Now and then both put their perspective on the struggle between two different groups and fighting techniques within the two sides. Each film takes a different approach to connect the viewer to the film. With only being exposed to twenty-six minutes of The Battle of Algiers, it was difficult to get on a personal basis with the characters. Understanding who the characters were and the reasoning for their actions was missing. Learning on how and why they†¦show more content†¦Film making decisions can very easily pull in a viewer to the themes and motives of a plot. In The Battle of Algiers, the viewer does not get pulled into the battle. The film lacks the interest of one side over another and without this choosing of a protagonist verse an antagonist, t he viewer cannot feel emotionally tied into the battle. Also without being introduced to any characters, the viewer in unclear to who is really being put at risk with each attack, who is gaining or losing what from the attacks, and what is actually being gained or lost. The only influence on the attacks that the viewer is aware of is that one side attacked another, so they must strike back. The filmmaking decisions do not shape the viewers attitude toward any character in this film. In Paradise Now and then, the viewer follows Said and Khaled through their journey to supposedly the end of their lives. The viewer is able to feel why the characters choose to go along with their mission, what is at stake if the mission is attempted, and what will be gained and lost if the mission is successful. Religion is a big factor that influences Said and Khaled to become suicide bombers. Khaled asks, â€Å"What happens after death?† He gets an answer of â€Å"Two angels will pick you up. † This is very satisfying for Khaled and Said to hear. Remarks are often made throughout the film regarding God. That they are doing their people and God aShow MoreRelatedFilm Analysis : Paradise Now1232 Words   |  5 PagesParadise Now is a 2-hour film released in 2005, it depicts a perspective alternative in a highly controversial topic of suicide bombers or also known as a ‘martyr’. The movie takes place in Palestine during the Israeli occupation and illustrates the mundane life and frustration felt by the main characters Said and Khaled due to the oppression experienced during the conflict. A key feature that is also portrayed is the reasoning, and almost justification of an attack on that level. However, the perpatratorsRead MoreThe Mexican Market Is Now An O G Consulting Paradise1319 Words   |  6 PagesThe Mexican market is now an OG consulting paradise. Former PEMEX staff portrait themselves as seasoned Oilmen, Oil Field Service call themselves EP exp erts and everyone else falls into one of three buckets according to their â€Å"experience† size of their wallet and/or delusions of grandeur. There are the consultants or people who work(ed) with organizations with contracts in the national energy sector, there are the expert’s or people who claim to have worked with providers of PEMEX/CFE in theRead MoreJack Kerouac s On The Road With Sal Paradise1154 Words   |  5 PagesReaders spend much of Jack Kerouac’s On the Road with Sal Paradise, the narrator, in his travels throughout the United States trying to escape the rigors of his old life. An issue arises for Paradise because every time he begins to settle down somewhere the place turns old and his desire for movement returns. Paradise’s desire for movement eventually becomes second nature to him. He thrives on the uncertainties of the road and the people he sees only get passing reactions and glances at him fromRead MoreThe Power And Lure Of Satan1365 Words   |  6 PagesMilton’s â€Å"Paradise Lost†. Milton’s epic tale of Paradise Lost has become biblical folklore and even Christians who have not fully read the Bible rely upon the representations and indulgences that Milton presented through his embellishments of fact. Milton’s paradise lost is considered by critics to be one of the greatest literary cannons of all time and is undoubtedly a source of debate with no foregone conclusion other than who’s side is Milton really on, God’s or Satan’s. â€Å"Paradise Lost† is consideredRead MoreDescriptive Essay About Paradise Point1653 Words   |  7 Pages I visited my place Paradise Point Resort and Spa for the second time. I continued to record my observations and my encounters. I then began to contemplate the history and timeline of how Paradise Point came about. For my second visit to Paradise Point I went at 4:30 on a Monday, with the weather being in the mid 80’s. There were vacationers, guests, and employees all occupying the island. According to my prior knowledge and my observations from last time I visited Paradise Point the animal lifeRead MoreA Paradise State Of Mind981 Words   |  4 PagesA Paradise State of Mind Paradise is defined as an ideal state, and most everyone’s idea of paradise is different. Some may think of white, sandy beaches with crystal blue shorelines; while, to others paradise may just be a sense of feeling whole and safe. Everyone is always looking for ways to gain their paradise, or if they believe they already have it, then they are concerned with maintaining their paradise so that it will not be lost. In â€Å"The Story of an Hour† by Kate Chopin, the reader seesRead MoreEssay on Paradise by Toni Morrison1202 Words   |  5 PagesParadise by Toni Morrison Nine patriarchs found a town. Four women flee a life. Only one paradise is attained. Toni Morrisons novel Paradise revolves around the concept of paradise, and those who believe they have it and those who actually do. Morrison uses a town and a former convent, each with its own religious center, to tell her tale about finding solace in an oppressive world. Whether fleeing inter- and intra-racial conflict or emotional hurt, the characters travel a path ofRead More Essay on the Downfall of Man in John Miltons Paradise Lost1393 Words   |  6 PagesThe classic tragedy Paradise Lost, written by John Milton, demonstrates how the fallen angels lose the paradise they have been given, and how this fall directly effects the downfall of man as well. Before anything ever was, all matter was chaos; utter darkness and filth. A mighty being, God, rose up out of chaos and created the firmament called Heaven, and all the universe (4). The angels, and archangels that populated Heaven, danced in the realms of the magnificent light (8). Lucifer,Read MoreAnalysis Of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein 1554 Words   |  7 Pagesquickly gathers the satchel and its contents and returns to his hovel. The bag contained strictly books, one of them being John Milton’s â€Å"Paradise Lost†. After observing the family for some time, he attains the ability to read and speak. With this ability he reads all the books within the bag, and feels a profound connection between himself and Satan in â€Å"Paradise Lost†. Similar to the monster, Satan was cast out of heaven after betraying God by planning a revolt against him. Both characters wereRead MoreThe Great Mosque At Damascus931 Words   |  4 Pagesbelieve the landscape is an interpretation of Islamic paradise while other scholars dispute that, claiming it is just a landscape of the nearby area. Klaus Brisch and Maria Georgopoulou argue these sides in their publications on the Great Mosque and ultimately this paper sides with Brisch and critiques Georgopoul ou through a geographic and historical lens. The Great Mosque at Damascus does appear to demonstrate the images of Islamic paradise from the geographic perspective of the Umayyad Empire.

Women and Sexuality in Aphra Behns Poems Essay - 1967 Words

Women and Sexuality in Aphra Behns Poems All women together ought to let flowers fall upon the tomb of AphraBehn, . . . for it was she who earned them the right to speak their minds. (Woolf 91) Born in 1640, AphraBehn broke gender stereotypes when she undertook a thrilling (if unrewarded) life as a spy for the Crown, but it was her scandalous career as an author which truly achieved many firsts for women. She was the first woman to supporthereself financially by solely relying on the profession of writing, and many readers argue that Oroonoko--her passionate tale about the institution of slavery--was the first English novel. She was certainly one of the first female authors†¦show more content†¦Likewise pursued, in The Disappointment, Behns young virginal maiden takes her sexual destiny into her own hands (literally), leaving her would-be lover impotent, an outcast from what used to be his realm of power. Thus in The Willing Mistress and The Disappointment, Behn confers power to women by creating an environment of sexual freedom in which female sexuality is natural, strong, comfortable, and driven by pure desire. In the Middle Ages, if a woman wanted to express herself in writing, she was limited to expressions of religious faith, as were Julian of Norwich and Margery Kempe. Any rapture described in the literature of this period was usually reserved for Christ, prompted by the ecstatic realization of an eternal life. In the 16th and 17th centuries, women writers were still largely limited in how they were permitted to express themselves. While writing about love became more socially acceptable, most examples still presented a romanticized perspective in which passion was inextricably linked to emotional involvement. There are glimpses of sexuality, such as when Anne Bradstreet in A Letter to Her Husband, Absent Upon Public Employment refers to her children as those fruits which through [her husbands] heat I bore and yearns for him to return and warm her chilled limbs (Lines 14; 11). However, even thisShow MoreRelatedThe Rights Of Female Sexuality1626 Words   |  7 Pagesextravagant spending. While men during the period enjoyed the libertine culture that was introduced, women continued to be restrained by boundaries that had constricted their social and sexual freedom for centuries. Aphra Behn, the first woman in England to identify as a professional writer, challenged sexual inequality by reforming the female image through literature. She addresses themes of female desire, sexuality, and homosexuality in amatory fiction such as â€Å"To the Fair Clorinda†,†The Willing Mistress†Read MoreThe Feminist: Aphra Behn Essay786 Words   |  4 PagesIn the 17th century a writer named Aphra Behn emerged as leader in English literature. With a shaky beginning, Behn persevered to become the first female professional writer. With her feminist opinions, she revolutionized writing and her impacts in the 17th century would ch ange modern day writing. Behn was a clever writer who wrote lively, vibrant plays and poetry. Behn impacted the world, not only with her writing, but also with her determination and voice about her feminist opinions. Behn showedRead MoreThe Disappointment By Virginia Woolf Essay1885 Words   |  8 Pagesthat â€Å"All women together ought to let flowers fall upon the tomb of Aphra Behn †¦ for it was she who earned them the right to speak their minds† (66). Since then, it seems that the Restoration author has been deemed the one of first true feminists. Many argue that this is apparent both in her being the first woman author to support herself with her writing as well as her critique of gender and their assigned roles within her works. And while Behn has without a doubt inspired countless women to takeRead MoreThe Is The Romantic And / Or Sexual Attraction For More Than One Gender1320 Words   |  6 Pagesbisexual are attracted to male, female, and sometimes the non -binary genders. Non-binary genders can include those who are transgender, agender, and genderfluid. Bisexuality is a separate sexuality from pansexuality. Pansexuality which is the romantic and/or sexual attraction to all genders. Like the sexuality and gender spectrums bisexuality is also a spectrum. One can be bisexual but only desire those of the male and female gender. Another could only find those who are non-binary and the femaleRead MoreThe Life and Works of Dramatist Aphra Behn Essay2575 Words   |  11 PagesThe Life and Works of Dramatist Aphra Behn Aphra Behn left a legacy of being not only a complex and enigmatic woman, but a poet, a playwright, a writer, a novelist, and a spy. A commoner who blended with the royalty and revolted against the societal norms with her lewd yet cunning writings, she exhibited the influence of more than just a writer of her time period and left her mark in the canon of English literature by creating her own genre of amatory. She was a feminist, an adventurist, an abolitionistRead MoreGender and Power Dyanics in ; ‘Oroonoko’ by Aphra Behn and ‘the Rape of the Lock’ by Alexander Pope1610 Words   |  7 PagesPaper 1; ‘Oroonoko’ by Aphra Behn and ‘The Rape of the Lock’ by Alexander Pope The relationship between gender and power dynamics is relevant to the understanding of literature through the ages. However, the widespread problematic belief that women are simply the passive, powerless victims of male power is oversimplified and outdated. Power relations, as theorized by Foucault in ‘The History of Sexuality’ are far more complex; the dynamic is ever-changing, from moment to moment and therefore anyRead MoreRochester s Radical Gender Roles1249 Words   |  5 Pagescomplete political or social reform. Departing from tradition; new† (Soanes 740). When using this definition, both Aphra Behn’s work, â€Å"The Disappointment† and John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester’s work, â€Å"The Imperfect Enjoyment† are easily interpreted as such. Both poems discuss sexuality and gender in new, sometimes shocking ways. Behn’s poem offers astoundingly liberal views on female sexuality, considering the time period. Despite the radical notions and expletives present, Rochester’s pushes the envelopeRead MoreThe Disappointment By Aphra Behn1367 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout â€Å"The Disappointment†, Aphra Behn critics the established gender roles in the society particularly sexually. This can be seen in the relationship between Lisander who is the male figure and Cloris who is the female one. In this poem, Cloris can be seen as the object of desire while Lisander can be seen as the sexual object which challenges the pre-established roles in society. The first stanza reveals a side of Lisander that shows that he does not have a complete control on his body. IndeedRead MoreImoindas Modernity: Aphra Behns Enactment of Conjugal Marriage in Oroonoko, or the Royal Slave3146 Words   |  13 PagesIMOINDA’S MODERNITY: APHRA BEHN’S ENACTMENT OF CONJUGAL MARRIAGE IN OROONOKO, OR THE ROYAL SLAVE Aphra Behn depicts Imoinda, the object of the prince’s love in Oroonoko, Or The Royal Slave (1688), as exotic in her person, potent in her sexuality, but highly conventional in her domestic aspirations. While she has only limited ownership of her body, she operates within the limits of her status to secure the love of Prince Oroonoko, and then to defend their union, even at great risk to herself, and

grendelbeo Epic of Beowulf Essay - The Evil of Grendel

The Evil of Grendel in Beowulf The story of Beowulf, written during Anglo-Saxon times, is a classic epic tale between good versus evil. It is a story that gives us insight into the values of the Anglo-Saxon people. The Anglo-Saxons glorified heroism and the conquering of evil. In the Anglo-Saxon epic Beowulf, the character of Grendel symbolically represents evil through his setting and heritage, his hateful attitude toward men, and his vicious acts of murder. Grendels heritage and setting are two things that attribute to Grendels evilness. In the story the author tells us that Grendel was a descendant of Cain(the son of Adam and Eve, who was cursed by God for killing his brother Abel). The poet writes, Conceived†¦show more content†¦He is pure evil spawned from Hell. In Beowulf, Grendel represents evil through his hateful attitude towards men. Grendel is tormented by the loud cheerful music that the Danes sing. The poet writes, A powerful monster, living down in the darkness, growled in pain, impatient as day after day the music rang loud in that hall, the harps rejoicing(lines 23-26). The poet suggests that the monster loathes the Danes for their loudness. Another reason for the monsters hatred toward men could be because he is jealous of the humans. Grendel knows that he can not be accepted in their group and be one of them. The monster uses this as an excuse to kill them, and he keeps the grudge against them no matter how many of the men he kills. The poet writes, How the monster relished his savage war on the Danes, keeping the bloody feud alive, seeking no peace, offering no truce, accepting no settlement, no price in gold or land, and paying the living for one crime with another(lines 89-94). The author shows us that Gr endel will not forgive the Danes, even though the Danes didnt even know they were committing a crime against Grendel. Grendels evilness is fueled by his hatred of men. The author writes, Seeing how Grendel hunted when they slept. Distance was safety; the only survivors were those fled him. Hate had triumphed(lines 78-80). He shows us how Grendels hatred fueled his passionate lust for evil. Grendel also represents evil

The Madness Inside, or Outside Hamlet - 977 Words

One of the most controversial pieces of Hamlet is whether Hamlet’s madness is real or if he is faking it. If his madness isn’t real, and he is feigning it, it opens up the idea that he is using his madness as a distraction in order to divert attention from his true actions of killing Claudius. In The Lion King, Simba doesn’t have any of his own madness, but his friends Timone and Pumba supply him with some of their own. Timone and Pumba are Hamlet’s madness, but instead of Simba being mad himself, it is projected onto others. Timone and Pumba help Simba push the death of his father out of his mind, help him push the thoughts of his own death out of his mind, and help create a distraction for him realize his destiny of taking his rightful†¦show more content†¦This may be prolonged due to the fact that during the time that his father has died and now mother had already remarried. It isn’t until he decides to act mad that he can finally push p ast his father’s death. If his madness truly was an act then his mind was busy thinking up his unique sentence that confused those around him. In The Lion King the death of Mufasa occurs in the story. After Simba escapes his own death after witnessing his father’s, he finds the madness much faster. When he finds Timone and Pumba they immediately attempt to change his way of thinking by telling Simba â€Å"Hakuna Matata,† (Allers Minkoff, 43). Once Timone and Pumba introduce Hakuna Matata to him, he is freed of his past he is no longer concerned about where he came from, but instead only with what is coming. As Timone put it â€Å"You got to put your past behind you.† (43). If Simba could push past his father’s death, he could make it through anything. The madness brought peace to both characters, it helped them move on with their lives. Without the madness they may have met an early demise. In The Lion King, Simba runs away after his uncle tries to have him killed. After that he just doesn’t want to go on, his dad had just died, and he believed it was his fault. Simba just wants to give up on life, so when Timone asks, â€Å"Hey where ya going?† Simba replies, â€Å"Nowhere.† (42). Simba just wantedShow MoreRelatedAppearence vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Hamlet Essay1671 Words   |  7 Pagestragedy, Hamlet, there is a dominant and overwhelming theme that is concurrent throughout the play. Throughout the play, all the characters appear as one thing on the outside, yet on the inside they are completely different. The theme of appearance versus reality surrounds Hamlet due to the fact that the characters portray themselves as one person on the outside, and one different on the inside. In the play, Claudius, Hamlet’s uncle, appears to be kind, gentle, and caring on the outside, but in actualRead MoreEssay about Appearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Hamlet1007 Words   |  5 PagesAppearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Hamlet In Hamlet, one of Shakespeares greatest tragedies, there is a prevailing theme that is concurrent throughout the play. Throughout the play, all the characters appear to be one thing on the outside, yet on the inside they are completely different. The theme of appearance versus reality is prominent in Hamlet because of the fact that the characters portray themselves different from what they really are. In the playRead MoreThe Theme of Appearance vs. Reality in William Shakespeares Works729 Words   |  3 PagesShakespeares Works Characters within one of William Shakespeares greatest tragic plays, Hamlet, appear to be true and honest but in reality are infested with many falsehoods and deceptions. Characters such as Polonius, Claudius, and Hamlet give an impression of a person who is sincere and genuine, but behind their masks are plagued with lies and evil. As a result of Shakespeares ingenious characterRead MoreThe Theme of Hamlet897 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Doe English 2 H April 1, 2015 Hamlet Theme Essay The themes of Appearance vs. Reality are very prominent in the play Hamlet by William Shakespeare. Throught the story many characters act in a deceitful manner in an attempt to seem like an innocent pawn in the game of life, when in reality they are the most corrupt characters in the play. Polonius an excellent example of appearance vs. reality. Throught the story Polonius seems to be a loyal servant to the kingdom, serving the previousRead MoreConflict Between Hamlet And Laerte By William Shakespeare1564 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout Hamlet, several characters die. For most, this happens through combat, such as the duel between Hamlet and Laerte, which kills them both. In the play, however, two characters die in quick, seemingly careless ways. The first, the fair Ophelia, is killed by her own madness in what seems to be suicide. The other, Gertrude, dies due to the carelessness of her husband, who accidentally poisons her. In both of these cases, their deaths, and the events tha t led to them, represent a differenceRead MoreHamlet Analysis Essay On Hamlet954 Words   |  4 PagesShakespeares play, Hamlet, is an intriguing and intricate drama about an individual who wants to avenge the death of his father. Prince Hamlet’s father, King Hamlet, was once king and the throne was inherited by his evil brother, King Claudius. In addition to inheriting the throne, Claudius has married Prince Hamlet’s mother, Gertrude, which is perceived as weird and unlawful. Interestingly, Prince Hamlet has cohesive evidence that King Claudius is responsible for the death of his father. As aRead MoreHamlet and the Yellow Wallpaper1002 Words   |  5 PagesThe Nature of Insanity in â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† and â€Å"Hamlet† There are many different events in a person’s life that could lead them to insanity. In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† you are dealing with a woman who is a victim of male over-protectiveness and isolation that eventually leads to her insanity. In William Shakespeare’s â€Å"Hamlet† you are dealing with a man who has to deal with his father’s death and rejection from the love of his life that eventually leads himRead MoreInside A Or Inside Looking Out Essay1721 Words   |  7 PagesJohntia King Mr. Wayne Terrell ENG IV 25 March 2016 Outside Looking in or Inside Looking Out â€Å"To be or not to be..† That is thy question. Who is prince Hamlet? What is he like? Hamlet is one of the most dynamic, if not the most dynamic character, in the play Hamlet. He happens to be on of the most eccentric beings that Shakespeare put in his works. Throughout the play, he was someone who endured a lot of adversity and did not even sweat a drop from his brow. He stayed cool and displayed his bestRead MoreKill Hamlet: What Kill Bill and Hamlet Teach Us About Revenge1171 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Revenge is a dish best served cold.† The Sicilian proverb used as Kill Bill Vol. 2s tagline perfectly points out a tragic flaw shared by Shakespeares Hamlet and Quentin Tarentinos modern hero: Bill (from Kill Bill Vol. 1 and Kill Bill Vol. 2). In Kill Bill Beatrice is a killer belonging to a team of assassins lead by a man by the name of Bill. Beatrice and her master fall in love and one night while she is on a job, she discovers she is pregnant. She realizes the world of assassins is no placeRead MoreHamlet By William Shakespeare s Hamlet Essay1707 Words   |  7 Pagesbrilliant writers that challenge readers to think outside the box. Shakespeare’s play Hamlet never failed to impress scholars from all over the world because the play can be interpreted in many different ways. Hamlet is performed in all over the theater and never ceases to amaze those who read Hamlet and know the play by heart. Plays in theater can open a brand new perspective of the play Hamlet because readers can actually visualize scenes from Hamlet through the actors and have their own opinions

The Alkaline Earths and the Halogens-Two Families in the Periodic Table free essay sample

Rinse the tubes and add 1 mL chlorine water and 1mL HEX to each test tube. 8. Then add 1 mL 0. 1 M solutions of the sodium halide salts, one per test tube. 9. Stopper each test tube and shake, noting the color of the HEX layer after shaking. 10. Decide whether Cl2 is a better oxidizing agent than Br2 or I2. 11. Again, rinse the tubes and add 1 mL iodide water and 1mL HEX to each. 12. Test each tube with 1 mL of a sodium halide salt solution and determine whether I2 is able to oxidize Cl? or Br ? ions. 13. Record observations in the Table. III. Identification of an Alkaline Earth Halide 1. Develop a method for determining which cation is present in a solution containing one Group 2 cation and no other cations. 2. Determine which halide ion is present in a solution containing only one such anion and no others. Purpose The purpose of this lab is to observe the solubility properties of various ionic compounds containing alkaline earth metal cations, to observe the relative abilities of the halogens to be reduced to halides, or act as oxidizing agents and to use the above observations to identify an unknown salt consisting of an alkaline earth metal cation and a halide anion. We will write a custom essay sample on The Alkaline Earths and the Halogens-Two Families in the Periodic Table or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page

Ethical Use of Prisoners in Human Research free essay sample

The use of humans as research subjects has been a long debated issue within the scientific community. There are a lot of factors that go into regulating such research studies, like limiting coercion, undue inducement, and vulnerability of the population of the subjects in the study. To help control these issues, there have been many guidelines that have been implemented to ensure the safety and wellbeing of the research subjects. Within healthcare and medical research, certain groups of people are offered special services and protections because they are considered vulnerable. Vulnerable populations include children, persons with mental disabilities, women who are pregnant, and prisoners. The CIOMS International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research define ‘vulnerable persons’ as â€Å"those who are relatively (or absolutely) incapable of protecting their own interests. More formally, the may have insufficient power, intelligence, education, resources, strength, or other needed attributes to protect their own interests. Therefore, there are detailed guidelines that are designed to protect the rights and welfare of any vulnerable persons by requiring justifications for involving such individuals in research. It is essential for healthcare workers and researchers to identify subjects as vulnerable or not to make sure that resources are properly allocated to ensure that special protections and benefits are given to those who need it (8). There has been a long struggle to define vulnerability, which has led to arguments about its value as a factor in the distribution of resources an it’s appropriateness as a guiding principle in bioethics. History of the use of Prisoners The abuse of the use of humans in research in recent history has made it evident for the need for a code of ethics protecting human research subjects. Both Nazi Germany and the Imperial Japanese Army took advantage of the poverty, defenselessness, and dependency of others by using the latter to serve their own needs without adequate compensation for these disadvantaged individuals or groups (6). When Adolf Hitler came to power, he implemented a series of laws promoting racial segregation and the protection of the â€Å"Arian race†. These laws were created in partnership with a portion of the German medical community. One of the first laws that was enacted was called the Sterilization Act. This called for the sterilization of subjects with certain medical and mental disorders in order to remove the genetic abnormalities that caused these conditions from the gene pool, thereby purifying and improving the â€Å"German race. † The scientists involved in implementing these laws argued that they were performing these procedures â€Å"for the benefit of the nation and the health of subsequent generations, and not for the individual patient. They believed they were part of a ‘holy mission’, which would benefit society as a whole. (5) In addition to the Sterilization Act, the German medical community was involved in the implementation of the Nuremburg Laws, which were encated for the purpose of the â€Å"purification of the blood of the German people. (5) The involvemtn of the medical community in employing these laws demonstrates the relaxation of ethical principles. These laws required that couples undergo premarital medical examinations in order to prevent the spread of ‘racially damaging diseases’. In addition, as the war was approaching the Germans needed to free up hospital beds for wounded soldiers, and thus, the medical community was instructed to perform euthanasia on any incurable patients. This program was eventually extended to include the extermination of those who constituted a threat to society; those with links to criminals, behaved antisocially, prostitutes, drifters, and homosexuals. This practice of mass extermination served as the model for the â€Å"Final Solution†, which was to wipe out an enormous number of Jewish people. In addition to these methods of eradication, the German medical community played a large role in more covert procedures that took places in healthcare institutions. These included killing patients though malnutrition, inducing hypothermia by turning off the heat during the winter, and injecting subjects with drugs in order to speed up the death process. (5) Probably one of the most concerning displays of the connecting between the German doctors and the Nazis was the use of humans as research subjects, not only among the atrocities of the concentration camps, but also in the hospitals and universities. In addition to Jews, gypsies, Slavs, homosexuals, and the physically and mentally disabled were recruited as ‘subjects’ for these horrific experiments. Just as they justified carrying out the Sterilization Act and the Nuremburg Laws, they also deemed the acts performed in hospitals as ok, saying that â€Å"if the sick have to die anyway, as a result of the assessment of one of my colleagues, why not make use of them while alive or after their execution for research? † (5) Ethical Guidelines for the Use of Prisoners As a result of these horrors and the exploitation in the use of prisoners as research subjects, ethical codes were written in an attempt to protect this population, in addition to other populations classified as vulnerable, from being mistreated and exploited. The various codes of ethics that have been drawn up demonstrate that when vulnerable groups, such as prisoners, serve as research populations, special principles and a heightened degree of care must be employed to deal with them. (7) As a reaction to the atrocities carried out by the Nazi doctors and scientists in the field of human research that were revealed during the Nuremburg trials, the Nuremburg code was published in August of 1947. It was the first international code for research with human beings, and was based on the Hippocratic oath of â€Å"first do no harm. † It was created to prevent and repetition of the calamity resulting from the extremely cruel attacks on human wellbeing and rights. It put forth rules that should govern the use of human beings for experimentation. The need to obtain informed consent is emphasized, and it has since been regarded as the key issue of the protection of patients’ rights. The code consists of a declaration of ten principles, generally focusing on the protection of the rights of persons participating in medical research. It requires that in addition to the requirement for researchers and clinicians to protect their patients’ rights, the subjects themselves also actively participate in their own protection. Though the Nuremburg Code has not been officially implemented in any nation or medical association, it has had a huge impact on the area of human rights and bioethics. Since its fundamental requirement of informed consent has been accepted all over the world, it has been preserved within multiple international laws regarding human rights. (5) In 1964, the Eighteenth World Medical Assembly meeting in Helsinki adopted an ethical code to help guide doctors and researchers who conduct medical research involving human subjects, and has been amended several times in attempt to stay current. The Declaration of Helsinki developed the ten principle first addressed in the Nuremburg Code and tied them to the Declaration of Geneva, a statement of a physician’s ethical duties. Thus, it has many things in common with the Nuremburg Code, the most essential of which is the requirement for informed consent. However, they do have their differences. First, the Declaration of Helsinki points out that some, but not all, medical research is combined with medical care. Consequently, it puts forth a set of principles for medical research combined with medical care or therapeutic research. Second, while the Nuremberg Code does not address research on subjects who are unable to provide informed consent, the Helsinki Code addresses such research, stating the ethical acceptability under certain conditions of â€Å"proxy consent. † Despite the Declaration of Helsinki not being regarded as a binding instrument in international law, it is significant because it was the first major effort of the medical community to regulate research itself (5). Federal Regulations to protect human subjects in research were established in 1974 and adapted in 1981. They were then revised in 1991 as the US Code of Federal Regulations for the Protection of Human Subjects, also known as the Common Rule. However, unlike other ethical guideline, it does not define vulnerability. Instead, it provides special protections for ‘particularly vulnerable populations’. These include pregnant women, fetuses, neonates, children, and prisoners. (4) These regulations define research as a ‘systemic investigation’ designed to advance or add to ‘generalizable knowledge. ’ This includes research development, testing, and evaluation. Current Literature on the Use of Prisoners Lawrence Gostin, in his article entitled Biomedical Research Involving Prisoners, discusses the ethical values and legal regulations regarding research studies that involve prisoners. He mentions that many companies, including the US Army and major pharmaceutical companies, performed a wide variety of research on prisoners up until the early 1970s due to their easy accessibility, vulnerability, and captivity. In many cases researchers did not obtain informed consent and failed to treat the prisoners properly for the pain they endured. Ultimately, in the mid 1970s research of this kind declined due to publicized knowledge of the exploitation of prisoners. Federal regulations that protected human subjects were adapted several times and came to be known as the Common Rule. In recent years the amount of prisoners in correctional facilities has greatly increased. Thus, correctional facilities are overcrowded and many inmates are subject to inadequate treatment including limited access to services and health care. In addition to their poor health and low socioeconomic status, prisoners are considered vulnerable due to their limited liberty and autonomy. They may not be capable of providing informed consent and may not have a practical expectation of privacy within prison settings. In this environment, prisoners may not be capable of meaningfully choosing between participating in research and not participating (Gostin, 738). A compromise between promoting beneficial research and protecting prisoners is difficult to achieve and is politically controversial. The author suggests a few proposals that he believes solve this difficulty. Firstly, he suggests that the definition of prisoner be extended to include all individuals whose autonomy and liberty are limited by the justice system. Next, he recommends that all research on prisoners be regulated consistently, irrespective of the source of funding, supporting agency, or type of correctional facility. The third proposal is to create a national database for prisoner research. This would ensure greater accountability, provide a method for measuring the success of research projects, and assist the implementation of beneficial research findings to prisoner populations. In his article entitled Against Risk-Benefit Review of Prisoner Research, Eric Chwang discusses the some of the weaknesses of the Common Rule. He mentions the recommendations of the Institute of Medicine’s Ethical Considerations for Research Involving Prisoners. The suggested five changes to the current United States regulations on prisoner research. These are 1) to broaden the definition of â€Å"prisoner†, 2) to guarantee universally and consistently applied standards of protection, 3) to move from a category- based to a risk-benefit approach to research review, 4) to revise the ethical framework to include collaborative responsibility, and 5) to improve systematic oversight of research involving prisoners. The IOM report maintains that the category-based constraints stated in the Common Rule are lacking since they are subject to interpretation and do not attend to actual prisoner vulnerabilities. Thus, the IOM report recommends that the category-based constraints be replaced with risk-benefit constraints. However, the author disagrees and thinks the Common Rule and IOM recommendations should be combined into an ethical framework. He suggests that additional risk-benefit restrictions on research are redundant and that the current Common Rule regulations excluding category-based constraints, but compounded with the IOM’s four other recommendations, guarantee that prisoner research is as ethical as non-prisoner research. Chwang argues that the reason for the IOM’s insistence on risk-benefit constraints is that the IOM compares the vulnerable population of prisoners to the vulnerable population of children, for whom research is regulated on the basis of risk-benefit restrictions. However, while children are not competent to give rational consent and rely on adults to determine whether or not they should serve as subjects in research, most prisoners are adults and can thus make rational decisions about participation in research (Chwang, 15). Chwang claims that even though the implementation of risk-benefit restrictions was designed to solve certain problems inherent to prisoners, there are several reasons why it was not successful in its attempt. First, risk-benefit constraints seem appropriate because they protect against the lack of autonomy inherent to prison life due to prisoner’s lack of freedom. They live in a coercive environment in which their lives are highly regulated, and therefore it can be argued that prisoners cannot freely choose whether or not to participate in research. However, while it seems that prisoners living in a coercive are completely â€Å"unfree†, meaning all of their decisions are made under pressure, then this is claim is false. Even though in this coercive environment many of prisoners’ decisions are subject to interference, this does not necessarily mean that every choice they make is subject to coercive interference. Another argument is that even prisoners can make some free choices the choice to participate in research will always be coerced. Yet, coercion is prohibited by the Common Rule, which applies to research with all populations. In addition, risk-benefit constraints do not alleviate these concerns about coercion since passing the research through a risk-benefit filter would not make it any more ethical to coerce prisoners into participating in research. The author suggests that the right response is to ensure that the research study is not coercive to begin with. The solution is not to add a risk-benefit analysis to the process; the solution is to make certain that the constraints already established for research are followed. In addition to risk-benefit analysis not being a suitable solution for the problem of coercion it is not a solution for the problem of undue inducement. Undue inducement is an incentive to participate in research that inappropriately influences the subject to enroll. Though prisoner research seems susceptible to undue inducement, this concern is not resolved by additional risk-benefit constraints. Firstly, the IOM report is concerned with risk-benefit analysis because it wants to guarantee that the benefits of prisoner research are great enough to offset the risks. Yet, it does not mention the danger of undue inducement as a motivating factor for its suggestion of risk-benefit restrictions. Also, undue inducements are no more problematic for prisoners than they are for the general population. Therefore, it is essential that the constraints already in place are strictly followed, not the addition of new constraints. Finally, while additional risk-benefit restrictions might seem to help solve the issue of exploitation of prisoners, they in fact do not. This is partly due to the fact that calculating the degree of exploitation is controversial. In order to eliminate exploitation, we would have to figure out not just whether the benefits of participation outweigh the risks, but rather we would also have to figure out whether the net benefits are high enough. This may depend on comparing those benefits to the benefits to the researcher and to society. We would therefore require an expected benefit calculation. This idea that we must guarantee that the distribution of benefits is not exploitative is not part of the IOM report’s suggestion. Even if they did incorporate this calculation, it would still be problematic since the calculation can yield incorrect results. In addition, exploitation is a problem for all research, not just for research involving prisoners. Exploitation should be prohibited and more rigorous guidelines should be implemented for all research. Thus, we do not need additional restrictions for prisoner research. What is needed is better supervision to guarantee that more general constraints, which apply to all research, are followed. David Thomas, in his article entitled Prisoner Research- Looking Back or Looking Forward, discusses the issue of what he calls â€Å"prisoner’s right to research†, which refers to the concept of a prisoner’s right to participate as a subject in medical research. The author argues that this issue has been rarely addressed. While the IOM recommendations advocates for prisoners and allows research on prisoners, it does not advocate for the concept of a prisoner’s right to research (Thomas, 23). There are a variety of therapies in current medical care that change with great speed. Unlike a non-incarcerated person who has readily available access to therapies and receive treatment if needed, in a prison environment the only way to gain access to these therapies is to participate in a clinical trial. Thus, refusing prisoners the advantages of modern therapies would be equivalent to restricting their rights due only to their incarceration. Forms of imprisonment that extend beyond humane confinement may defy the ban against cruel and unusual punishment. In addition, denying incarcerated persons therapy by virtue of their incarceration creates an unequal state of affairs that imposes upon the essential issue of justice (Thomas, 25). Research involving prisoners with suitable protections that give prisoners the accepted standard of care should not be denied. In addition to the IOM recommendations, Julio Arboleda-Florez, in his article The Ethics of Biomedical Research on Prisoners suggests other rules to ensure the protection of prisoners involved in research. He first recommends that external rewards should not be used as inducements to participate in research. Medical care, healthy food, reduction in sentence, or an increase in visiting hours should not be used to persuade prisoners to be involved in research. Next, he suggests that therapeutic research should be distinguished from nontherapeutic research. This is necessary so that prisoners will not be denied eventual health benefits that could result from involvement as a subject in research. The author also insists that the Institutional Review Board must have a role (Florez, 516). Finally, he proposes that increased external governance should be introduced. This is due to the trouble that results from lack of oversight. Ethical Analysis of the Use of Prisoners As can be seen from the literature previously discussed, there has been an ongoing debate regarding the ethical issues surrounding the use of prisoners as subjects of research studies, and the proper course of action to take in order to ensure prisoners’ protection from exploitation and coercion while at the same time maintaining their autonomy. According to the various codes of ethics, the requirement to protect the autonomy of persons with diminished capacity is linked to the ethical principle of respect for persons.